Working with Victims of Crime: The Basics

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Information Sheet: The Basics of Victimization

Developed from Hill, J.K. (2004). Working with Victims of Crime: A Manual Applying Research to Clinical Practice, Ottawa ON: Justice Canada.

• Casarez-Levison (1992) discussed victimization as a process where the person moves from a precrime state (Previctimization), to the crime event itself (Victimization), to initial coping and adjustment (Transition) and finally to a state where being a crime victim is just part of their life experience (Resolution).
  
  
• Workers should ensure that victims understand that treatment may mean getting worse before getting better (Nishith, Resick & Griffin, 2002).
  
  
• Workers should also be watchful of poor coping strategies such as drug and alcohol abuse, worsening of personal relationships, increased isolation or withdrawal (Casarez-Levison, 1992). These poor responses should be addressed as quickly as possible by teaching the victim new, more effective coping techniques.
  
  
• Interventions appear to be able to help victims many years postvictimization (Resick, Nishith, Weaver, Astin & Feuer, 2002).
  
  
• Workers need to be cautious of engaging in "trauma bias" where one assumes that crime victims are automatically traumatized when they are not (Nelson, Wangsgaard, Yorgason, Higgins Kessler & Carter-Vassol, 2002).

The process of victimization and recovery (Casarez-Levison, 1992)

Previctimization → Victimization → Transition → Reorganization

Key Issues in Each Stage:

Previctimization/Organization

• History of childhood physical and sexual abuse (Messman & Long, 1996; Nishith et al., 2000; Pimlott-Kubiak & Cortina, 2003);
  
  
• History of previous Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (Brunet et al., 2001);
  
  
• Severity of previous PTSD episode(s) (Brunet et al., 2001);
  
  
• History of previous crime victimization or trauma (Byrne et al., 1999; Messman & Long, 1996; Norris et al., 1997; Nishith et al., 2000; Ozer et al., 2003);
  
  
• Psychiatric history, especially depression (Ozer et al., 2003);
  
  
• Family history of psychiatric problems (Ozer et al., 2003);
  
  
• Personality characteristics (Davis et al., 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 1999; Thompson et al., 2002);
  
  
• Coping history (Dempsey, 2002; Everly et al., 2000; Harvey & Bryant, 2002);
  
  
• Interpersonal relationship history (Kliewer, Murrelle, Mejia, Torres de G & Angold, 2001; Mikulincer et al., 1993; Nelson et al., 2002).

Victimization/Disorganization

• Crime characteristics, especially severity, have a profound effect on trauma (Gilboa-Schechtman & Foa, 2001; Norris et al., 1997; Ozer et al., 2003);
  
  
• Victim characteristics such as gender, age, history, etc. can affect the victim's reaction (Brewin et al., 2000, Greenberg & Ruback, 1992; Pimlott-Kubiak & Cortina, 2003; Wilmsen-Thornhill & Thornhill, 1991; Weinrath, 2000);
  
  
• Caution regarding secondary victimization by the system (Campbell et al., 1999; Hagemann, 1992; Norris et al., 1997);
  
  
• Dissociation during or immediately following the crime is a strong predictor of PTSD (Halligan et al., 2003; Ozer et al., 2003);
  
  
• Trauma memories are more disorganized than non-trauma memories (Halligan et al., 2003);
  
  
• Initial dissociation (shock) may be adaptive in some cases in that it may interfere with encoding into the long-term memory (Bromberg, 2003);
  
  
• There may be a narrowing of attention (Holman & Silver, 1998);
  
  
• There is a need for social support (emotional, informational, appraisal and instrumental);

Previctimization Victimization Transition Reorganization

• Gathering information aimed at helping the victim make decisions;
  
  
• Gathering information about resources and common reactions;
  
  
• Emotional reactions need to be experienced and processed;
  
  
• Assess the victim's coping strategies;
  
  
• Crisis intervention models may be useful in helping the victim overcome the initial challenges of surviving a crime (Calhoun & Atkeson, 1991).

Transition/ Protection

• Natural and professional supports could be accessed (Casarez-Levison, 1992);
  
  
• May apply the Transtheoretical Model of Change to help identify what level of service is needed (Prochaska et al., 1992);
  
  
• Dissociation may indicate later difficulties (Ozer et al. 2003);
  
  
• There may be active blocking of memories (Thompson, 2000);
  
  
• Victims may avoid crime related reminders, either through drugs/alcohol or active avoidance (Everly et al., 2000; Hagemann, 1992; Mezy, 1988; Wolkenstein & Sterman, 1998);
  
  
• Victims may engage in safety-oriented behaviours (Hagemann, 1992);
  
  
• Victims may focus on meaning making (Gorman, 2001; Layne et al., 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 1999; Thompson, 2000);
  
  
• Social comparison is often used to understand victimization (Hagemann, 1992; Greenberg & Ruback, 1992; Thompson, 2000);
  
  
• Victims may engage in self-comparison activities, focused on pre/post victimization changes (McFarland & Alvaro, 2000);
  
  
• Active treatment may be initiated (Casarez-Levison, 1992);
  
  
• Victims need to be informed that entering treatment may mean getting worse before getting better (Nishith et al, 2002);
  
  
• Treatments of PTSD including an exposure element seem to be effective (Bryant et al., 2003; Nishith et al., 2002);
  
  
• Self-efficacy may be important in treatment programs (Thompson et al., 2002);
  
  
• Emotionally engaged clients recover faster (Gilboa-Schechtman & Foa, 2001).

Reorganization/Resolution

• Recovery does not mean returning to a pre-victimized state (Hagemann, 1992);
  
  
• The Transtheoretical Model of Change may be useful in maintaining new, healthier behaviours (Prochaska, DiClemente & Norcross, 1992);
  
  
• Victims may focus on how surviving indicates strength (Hagemann, 1992; Thompson, 2000);
  
  
• Any remaining negative coping strategies need to be minimized (Dempsey, 2002);
  
  
• Activism is a possible positive long-term outcome of victimization (Hagemann, 1992).

Other Information Sheets in this Series:

• The Basics of Self-Care
• The Basics of Victim Reactions and Coping
• The Basics about Deciding to Refer to Mental Health Professionals
• The Basics about the Stages of Change
• The Basics to Cover in an Initial Interview

References:

• Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B. & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68 (5), 748-766.
• Bromberg, P. M. (2003). Something wicked this way comes: Trauma, dissociation, and conflict: The space where psychoanalysis, cognitive science, and neuroscience overlap. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 20(3), 558-574.
• Brunet, A., Boyer, R., Weiss, D. S. & Marmar, C. R. (2001). The effects of initial trauma exposure on the symptomatic response to a subsequent trauma, Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 33 (2), 97-102.
• Bryant, R. A, Moulds, M. L., Guthrie, R. M., Dang, S. T. & Nixon, R. D. V. (2003). Imaginal exposure alone and imaginal exposure with cognitive restructuring in treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 706-712.
• Byrne, C. A., Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Best, C. L. & Saunders, B. E. (1999). The socio-economic impact of interpersonal violence on women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67 (3), 362-366.
• Calhoun, K. S. & Atkeson, B. M (1991). Treatment of rape victims: Facilitating psychosocial adjustment. Toronto, ON: Pergamon Press.
• Campbell, R., Sefl, T., Barnes, H.E., Ahrens, C. E., Wasco, S. M. & Zaragoza-Diesfeld, Y. (1999). Community services for rape survivors: enhancing psychological well-being or increasing trauma? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67 (6), 847-858.
• Casarez-Levison, R. (1992). An empirical investigation of coping strategies used by victims of crime: Victimization redefined. In E. Viano (ed.) Critical issues in victimology: International perspectives (pp. 46-57). New York: Springer Publishing Co.
• Davis, C. G., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. & Larson, J. (1998). Making sense of loss and benefiting from the experience: Two construals of meaning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75 (2), 561-574.
• Dempsey, M. (2002). Negative coping as mediator in the relation between violence and outcomes: Inner-city African American youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72 (1), 102-109.
• Everly, G. S., Flannery, R. B. & Mitchell, J. T. (2000). Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM): a review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 23-40.
• Gilboa-Schechtman, E. & Foa, E. B. (2001). Patterns of recovery from trauma: The use of intraindividual analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110 (3), 392-400.
• Gorman, W. (2001). Refugee survivors of torture: Trauma and treatment. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32 (5), 443-451.
• Greenberg, M. S. & Ruback, R. B. (1992). After the crime: Victim decision making. New York: Plenum Press.
• Hagemann, O. (1992). Victims of violent crime and their coping processes. In E. Viano (ed.), Critical issues in victimology: International perspectives (pp.58-67). New York: Springer Publishing Co.
• Halligan , S. L, Michael, T., Clark, D. M. & Ehlers, A. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: The role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(3), 419-431.
• Harvey, A. G. & Bryant, R. A. (2002). Acute Stress Disorder: A synthesis and critique. Psychological Bulletin, 128 (6), 886-902.
• Holman, E. A. & Silver, R. C. (1998). Getting "stuck" in the past: Temporal orientation and coping with trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (5), 1146-1163.
• Kliewer, W., Murrelle, L. Mejia, R., Torres de G., Y. & Angold, A. (2001). Exposure to violence against a family member and internalizing symptoms in Colombian adolescents: The protective effects of family support. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69 (6), 971-982.
• McFarland, C. & Alvaro, C. (2000). The impact of motivation on temporal comparisons: Coping with traumatic events by perceiving personal growth. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (3), 327-343.
• Messman, T. L. & Long, P. L. (1996). Child sexual Abuse and its relationship to revictimization in adult women: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 16(5), 397-420.
• Mezy, G. (1988). Reactions to rape: Effect, counselling and the role of health professionals. In. M. Maguire & J. Pointing (eds.). Victims of crime: A new deal (pp. 66-73). Milton Keyes: Open University Press.
• Mikulincer, M., Florian, V. & Weller, A. (1993). Attachment styles, coping strategies, and posttraumatic psychological distress: The impact of the Gulf War in Israel. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64 (5), 817-826.
• Nelson, B. S., Wangsgaard, S., Yorgason, J., Higgins Kessler, M. & Carter-Vassol, E. (2002). Single- and dual-trauma couples: Clinical observations of relational characteristics and dynamics. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72 (1), 58-69.
• Nishith, P., Mechanic, M. B. &. Resick, P. A. (2000). Prior interpersonal trauma: The contribution to current PTSD symptoms in female rape victims. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109 (1), 20-25.
• Nishith, P., Resick, P. A. & Griffin, M. G. (2002). Pattern of change in prolonged exposure and cognitive-processing therapy for female rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70 (4), 880-886.
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S. & Davis, C. G. (1999). "Thanks for Sharing That": Ruminators and their social support networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77 (4), 801-814.
• Norris, F. H., Kaniasty, K. & Thompson, M. P. (1997). The psychological consequences of crime: Findings from a longitudinal population-based studies. In R. C. Davis, A. J. Lurigo and W. G. Skogan (eds), Victims of Crime, 2nd ed. (pp. 146-166). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L. & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52-73.
• Pimlott-Kubiak, S. & Cortina, L. M. (2003). Gender, victimization, and outcomes: Reconceptualizing risk. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(3), 528-539.
• Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C. & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102-1114.
• Resick, P. A., Nishith, P., Weaver, T. L., Astin, M. C. & Feuer, C. A. (2002). A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 867-879.
• Thompson, M. (2000). Life after rape: A chance to speak? Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 15(4), 325-343.
• Thompson, M. P., Kaslow, N. J., Short, L. M. & Wyckoff, S. (2002). The mediating roles of perceived social support and resources in the self-efficacy-suicide attempts relation among African American abused women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70 (4), 942-949.
• Weinrath, M. (2000). Violent victimization and fear of crime among Canadian Aboriginals. In N. J. Pallone (ed.), Race, ethnicity, sexual orientation: The realities and the myths (pp. 107-120). New York: Haworth Press.
• Wilmsen-Thornhill, N. & Thornhill, R. (1991). An evolutionary analysis of psychological pain following human (homo sapiens) rape: IV. The effect of the nature of the sexual assault. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 105(3), 243-252.
• Wolkenstein, B. H. & Sterman, L. (1998). Unmet needs of older women in a clinic population: The discovery of possible long-term sequelae of domestic violence. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29(4), 341-348.

August 2004

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